ಪೇಪರ್ ಆಫ್ English British

ENGLISH BRITISH
Modified by Agus rahmansyah

Acknowledgments
First and foremost, I would like to thanks to Allah SWT, the Arrahman and Arrahim that owns every spirit and life, that has always been giving the best and the worst in live, an abundant gift, so I can finish this assignment, and do not forget peace be upon him to Muhammad SAW who has brought us from the darkness to the lightness.
Secondly, thanks very much for all which have helped the writer for finishing this paper, especially for our lecturer, Muklas Abrar, S.S. which has given support and time to writer for finishing this working paper, and also for all our friend in English letter 4 A thanks very much.
In this working paper surely still has any mistaken, as well in writing or in grammars, because of that critics and suggestion from all reader is important for better writing hereinafter.
As the writer we hope this working paper can help for all reader it as well for enrich the knowledge or as reference, especially for all friend in English Literature 4A.



Jambi, April 2008


Writer





CHAPTER I
INTRODUCING
A. Opening
English is an international language, if we want to communicate with foreign people we use English for active communication besides the other international language. As the English student we must know the history of English, because it is very important so that we can more know about English
British English is the broad term used to distinguish the forms of the English language used in the United Kingdom from forms used elsewhere in the Anglophone world. British English encompasses usages of English within Great Britain and Ireland, though in the case of Ireland, there are further distinctions peculiar to Hiberno-English.
There are slight regional variations in formal written English in the United Kingdom (for example, although the words wee and little are interchangeable in some contexts, one is more likely to see wee written by a Scottish or Northern Irish person than by someone from Southern England or Wales). Nevertheless, there is a meaningful degree of uniformity in written English within the United Kingdom, and this could be described as "British English". The forms of spoken English, however, vary considerably more than in most other areas of the world where English is spoken and a uniform concept of "British English" is therefore more difficult to apply to the spoken language. According to Tom McArthur in the Oxford Guide to World English (page. 45), "for many people, especially in England (the phrase British English) is tautologies," and it shares "all the ambiguities and tensions in the word British, and as a result can be used and interpreted in two ways, more broadly or more narrowly, within a range of blurring and ambiguity".






CHAPTER II
THE BODY OF WRITING
ENGLISH BRITISH
A. History
The widespread use of English worldwide is largely attributable to the power of the former British Empire, and this is reflected in the continued use of the language in both its successor (the Commonwealth of Nations) and many other countries. In the days before radio and television, most communication across the English-speaking world was by the written word. This helped to preserve a degree of global uniformity of the written language. However, due to the vast separation distances involved, variations in the spoken language began to arise. This was also aided by émigrés to the empire encountering other, non-British cultures. In some cases, resulting variations in the spoken language have led to these being reflected in minor variations in written language usage, grammar and spellings in other countries.

B. Dialects
Dialects and accents vary not only amongst the nations of Britain, but also within the countries themselves. There are also differences in the English spoken by different socio-economic groups in any particular region.
The major divisions are normally classified as English English (or English as spoken in England, which comprises Southern English dialects, Midlands English dialects and Northern English dialects), Welsh English, Scottish English and the closely related dialects of the Scots language. The various British dialects also differ in the words that they have borrowed from other languages. The Scottish and Northern English dialects include many words originally borrowed from Old Norse and a few borrowed from Gaelic.
Following its last major survey of English Dialects (1950–1961), the University of Leeds has started work on a new project. In May 2007 the Arts and Humanities Research Council awarded a grant to a team led by Sally Johnson, Professor of Linguistics and Phonetics at Leeds University to study British regional dialects.
Johnson's team are sifting through a large collection of examples of regional slang words and phrases turned up by the "Voices project" run by the BBC, in which they invited the public to send in examples of English still spoken throughout the country. The BBC Voices project also collected hundreds of news articles about how the British speak English from swearing through to items on language schools. This information will also be collated and analyzed by the Johnson's team both for content and for where it was reported. "Perhaps the most remarkable finding in the Voices study is that the English language is as diverse as ever, despite our increased mobility and constant exposure to other accents and dialects through TV and radio

C. Accent
The most common form of English used by the British upper classes is that originating from southeast England (the area around London and the ancient university towns of Oxford and Cambridge). This form of the language is known as the "Received Standard", and its accent is called Received Pronunciation (RP), which is improperly regarded by many people outside Britain as "the British accent". Earlier it was held as better than other accents and referred to as "the King's (or Queen's) English", or even "BBC English", as this was originally the form of English used by radio and television. However, there is now much more tolerance of variation than there was in the past; for several decades other accents have been accepted and are frequently heard, although stereotypes about the BBC persist. English spoken with a mild Scottish accent has a reputation for being especially easy to understand. Moreover, only approximately two percent of Britons speak RP[6], and it has evolved quite markedly over the last 40 years.
Even in the South East there are significantly different accents; the local inner East London accent called Cockney is strikingly different from RP and can be difficult for outsiders to understand.
Estuary English has been gaining prominence in recent decades: it has some features of RP and some of Cockney. In London itself, the broad local accent is still changing, partly influenced by Caribbean speech. Londoners speak with a mixture of these accents, depending on neighborhood, class, age, upbringing, and sundry other factors.
Since the mass immigration to Northampton shire in the 1940s and its close accent borders, it has become a source of various accent developments. There, nowadays, one finds an accent known locally as the Kettering accent, which is a mixture of many different local accents, including East Midlands, East Anglian, Scottish, and Cockney. This accent is found as far north as Melton Mow bray, and as far south as Bedford. In addition, found in the town of Corby, five miles (8 km) north, one can find Core byte, which unlike the Kettering accent, is largely based on Scottish. This is due to the influx of Scottish steelworkers (steel working being a major industry in the town).
Outside the southeast there are, in England alone, other parts of accents easily distinguished by natives, including:
1. West Country (South West England)
2. East Anglian
3. West Midlands (Black Country, Birmingham)
4. East Midlands
5. Liverpool (Scouse)
6. Manchester and other east Lancashire accents
7. Yorkshire
8. Newcastle (Geordie) and other northeast England accents
Although some of the stronger regional accents may sometimes be difficult for some Anglophones from outside Britain to understand, almost all "British English" accents are mutually intelligible amongst the British themselves, with only occasional difficulty between very diverse accents. However, modern communications and mass media have reduced these differences significantly.

C. Standardization
As with English around the world, the English language as used in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland is governed by convention rather than formal thing, there is no equivalent body to the Academic franchise or the Real Academia Espanola, and the authoritative dictionaries (for example, Oxford English Dictionary, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English, Chambers Dictionary, Collins Dictionary) record usage rather than prescribe it. In addition, vocabulary and usage change with time; words are freely borrowed from other languages and other strains of English, and neologisms are frequent.
For historical reasons dating back to the rise of London in the 9th century, the form of language spoken in London and the East Midlands became Standard English within the Court, and ultimately became the basis for generally accepted use in the law, government, literature and education within Britain. Largely, modern British spelling was standardized in Samuel Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language (1755), although previous writers had also played a significant role in this and much has changed since 1755. Scotland, which underwent parliamentary union with England only in 1707, still has a few independent aspects of standardization, especially within its autonomous legal system.
The form of English taught across Europe is mainly that used in England and the subject is simply called "English"; the European Commission does not specify any specific English in its list of official languages but the English used in the member state The United Kingdom is what is assumed and used.











CHAPTER III
CONCLUSION

According to the text we can get the conclusion that the English British have through many process changing since from the 5th century until right now, as well as in Dialect, Accent or Standardization, so the conclusion that is:
 The widespread use of English worldwide is largely attributable to the power of the former British Empire, and this is reflected in the continued use of the language in both its successor (the Commonwealth of Nations) and many other countries
 The most common form of English used by the British upper classes is that originating from southeast England (the area around London and the ancient university towns of Oxford and Cambridge).
 As with English around the world, the English language as used in the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland is governed by convention rather than formal thing
 For historical reasons dating back to the rise of London in the 9th century, the form of language spoken in London and the East Midlands became Standard English within the Court, and ultimately became the basis for generally accepted use in the law, government, literature and education within Britain.





REFERENCES
Internet
http.//www.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_British. html. on line. April 15th, 2008

ENGLISH

A Few History Of English
History of the English Language
A short history of the origins and development of English
The history of the English language really started with the arrival of three Germanic tribes who invaded Britain during the 5th century AD. These tribes, the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes, crossed the North Sea from what today is Denmark and northern Germany. At that time the inhabitants of Britain spoke a Celtic language. But most of the Celtic speakers were pushed west and north by the invaders—mainly into what is now Wales, Scotland and Ireland. The Angles came from Englaland and their language was called Englisc—from which the words England and English are derived.
Germanic invaders entered Britain on the east and south coasts in the 5th century.
Old English (450-1100 AD)
The invading Germanic tribes spoke similar languages, which in Britain developed into what we now call Old English. Old English did not sound or look like English today. Native English speakers now would have great difficulty understanding Old English. Nevertheless, about half of the most commonly used words in Modern English have Old English roots. The words be, strong and water, for example, derive from Old English. Old English was spoken until around 1100.
Middle English (1100-1500)
In 1066 William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy (part of modern France), invaded and conquered England. The new conquerors (called the Normans) brought with them a kind of French, which became the language of the Royal Court, and the ruling and business classes. For a period there was a kind of linguistic class division, where the lower classes spoke English and the upper classes spoke French. In the 14th century English became dominant in Britain again, but with many French words added. This language is called Middle English. It was the language of the great poet Chaucer (c1340-1400), but it would still be difficult for native English speakers to understand today.

Modern English
Early Modern English (1500-1800)
Towards the end of Middle English, a sudden and distinct change in pronunciation (the Great Vowel Shift) started, with vowels being pronounced shorter and shorter. From the 16th century the British had contact with many peoples from around the world. This, and the Renaissance of Classical learning, meant that many new words and phrases entered the language. The invention of printing also meant that there was now a common language in print. Books became cheaper and more people learned to read. Printing also brought standardization to English. Spelling and grammar became fixed, and the dialect of London, where most publishing houses were, became the standard. In 1604 the first English dictionary was published.
Late Modern English (1800-Present)
The main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English is vocabulary. Late Modern English has many more words, arising from two principal factors: firstly, the Industrial Revolution and technology created a need for new words; secondly, the British Empire at its height covered one quarter of the earth's surface, and the English language adopted foreign words from many countries.
Varieties of English
From around 1600, the English colonization of North America resulted in the creation of a distinct American variety of English. Some English pronunciations and words "froze" when they reached America. In some ways, American English is more like the English of Shakespeare than modern British English is. Some expressions that the British call "Americanisms" are in fact original British expressions that were preserved in the colonies while lost for a time in Britain (for example trash for rubbish, loan as a verb instead of lend, and fall for autumn; another example, frame-up, was re-imported into Britain through Hollywood gangster movies). Spanish also had an influence on American English (and subsequently British English), with words like canyon, ranch, stampede and vigilante being examples of Spanish words that entered English through the settlement of the American West. French words (through Louisiana) and West African words (through the slave trade) also influenced American English (and so, to an extent, British English).
Today, American English is particularly influential, due to the USA's dominance of cinema, television, popular music, trade and technology (including the Internet). But there are many other varieties of English around the world, including for example Australian English, New Zealand English, Canadian English, South African English, Indian English and Caribbean English.


The Germanic Family of Languages

English is a member of the Germanic family of languages. Germanic is a branch of the Indo-European language family.

A brief chronology of English
BC 55 Roman invasion of Britain by Julius Caesar. Local inhabitants speak Celtish
BC 43 Roman invasion and occupation. Beginning of Roman rule of Britain.
436 Roman withdrawal from Britain complete.
449 Settlement of Britain by Germanic invaders begins
450-480 Earliest known Old English inscriptions. Old English
1066 William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, invades and conquers England.
c1150 Earliest surviving manuscripts in Middle English. Middle English
1348 English replaces Latin as the language of instruction in most schools.
1362 English replaces French as the language of law. English is used in Parliament for the first time.
c1388 Chaucer starts writing The Canterbury Tales.
c1400 The Great Vowel Shift begins.
1476 William Caxton establishes the first English printing press. Early Modern English
1564 Shakespeare is born.
1604 Table Alphabeticall, the first English dictionary, is published.
1607 The first permanent English settlement in the New World (Jamestown) is established.
1616 Shakespeare dies.
1623 Shakespeare's First Folio is published
1702 The first daily English-language newspaper, The Daily Courant, is published in London.
1755 Samuel Johnson publishes his English dictionary.
1776 Thomas Jefferson writes the American Declaration of Independence.
1782 Britain abandons its American colonies.
1828 Webster publishes his American English dictionary. Late Modern English
1922 The British Broadcasting Corporation is founded.
1928 The Oxford English Dictionary is published.

Kita, Kampus dan Prestasi

by Agus rahmansyah

Kampus adalah sebuah wadah pendidikan yang cukup ideal bagi pengembangan bakat dan kreativitas. Didalam dunia kampus kita diberikan kebebasan kemana arah kita kedepan, akan tetapi berada dalam kontrol dan jalur kebenaran. Berbeda dengan masa ketika kita masih di SLTA dan sebagainya, kita masih terikat dengan berbagai regulasi yang mengikat, baik itu pada hal yang menyangkut pembelajaran maupun diluar pembelajaran.
Perubahan yang cukup cepat dari masa SLTA yang serba terikat dengan berbagai aturan kepada dunia kampus yang sedikit memiliki kebebasan berpikir terkadang tidak disikapi oleh kita dengan arif dan bijaksana. Tidak sedikit dari kita yang memiliki prestasi cemerlang dikala SLTA kemudian menjadi anjlok ketika memasuki bangku kuliah. Hal ini tentu saja menjadi sebuah pertanyaan besar bagi kita sebagai generasi muda penerus bangsa.
Perubahan yang cukup dinamis dalam kehidupan kampus terkadang berlangsung begitu cepat tanpa kita sadari. Kita cenderung kurang jeli menyikapinya. Hal yang terpenting lagi adalah kita harus mencoba menikmati jadi diri kita sendiri dalam artian yang positif, artinya bukan berarti segala yang baik menurut kita bukan berarti baik bagi orang lain dan sebaliknya. Selain itu kita juga harus lebih bersikap kritis terutama kepada diri kita sendiri. Kritis bukan berarti kita harus kontra dan mengkritisi pendapat dan kebijakan orang lain. Akan tetapi dalam posisi ini kritis dalam artian kita harus bersikap peduli terhadap apa yang terjadi dilingkungan kita. Kita harus memiliki rasa empati dan rasa kebersamaan yang tinggi. kita harus memiliki kecenderungan memiliki semangat belajar yang tinggi, karena trik dan langkah kita diperguruan tinggi ini sangat berpengaruh terhadap pencapaian prestasi kita diperguruan tinggi.
Didalam kampus kita diberi kebebasan unruk menentukan kemana arah dan tujuan kita kedepan. Bola itu ada ditangan anda, sepertinya itu sebuah ungkapan yang sering kita dengarkan dari para motivator kita. Tidak bisa dipungkiri akan kebenaran dari perkataan itu. Kita bisa melihat sebagian dari mahasiswa diperguruan tinggi ini yang cukup memaknai akan pentingnya kerja keras dalam mencapai prestasi. Hal itulah yang menjadi penyebab utama mengapa prestasi kita cenderung berbeda dari masa SLTA ke perguruan tinggi. baik itu yang mengalami peningkatan maupun yang menglami penurunan. Sekali lagi hal yang perlu diingat adalah kuliah itu tidak butuh orang pintar tetapi butuh orang yang tekun. Butuh orang-orang yang memiliki senangat maju secara totalitas dan bukan hanya dalam semangat euphoria semata. Memiliki kemauan untuk berhasil, yakin dan tidak takut gagal. Jangan pernah menyesali apa yang telah terjadi, karena sebesar apapun penyesalan itu tidak akan merubahnya kembali kekeadaan semula. Untuk itu jangan pernah menyesal mengapa anda diterima dikampus ini, buatlah ini sebagai langkah anda untuk merubah arah hidup anda dengan terus berusaha menjadi yang terbaik, karena kita tidak akan pernah tahu apa yang akan terjadi dihari esok. Kini saatnya bagi kita untuk bangkit, harapan itu masih ada dalam diri kita. Kita harus memiliki keberanian untuk berubah, seperti kata Mr. The Liang Gie Memang tidak semua perubahan akan mambawa perbaikan, tetapi tanpa perubahan tak kan ada perbaikan sama sekali. Dan untuk mengadakan perubahan itu dibutuhkan keberanian. Ada hal yang perlu kita ingat, dalam hidup ini kita ibarat berlayar, Kita memang tidak bisa merubah arah angin (Tuhan yang menetukan kemana arahnya) tapi……Kita bisa menentukan arah/posisi layar kemana tujuan yang hendak kita capai, yakni dengan usaha/ikhtiar. Usaha dan doa sangat menentukan keberhasilan kita.

Otonomi daerah, kekuasaan dan primordialisme

By agus rahmansyah

Gema pembangunan terdengar diberbagai kota dan desa dinegeri ini, dari tingkat pusat maupun daerah. Berbagai program pembangunan digalakkan dan disosialisasikan. Sungguh kemajuan yang luar biasa bila hal ini dilakukan dengan baik. Akan tetapi pengawasan yang keras perlu dilakukan, karena negeri ini sepertinya masih sulit mencari orang yang benar-benar memegang amanah dengan baik. Oleh karena itu bila pengawasan yang dilakukan pemerintah pusat maupun pihak yang berwenang maka tujuan pembangunan tidak akan terlaksana dengan maksimal.
Otonomi daerah telah dipilih oleh elite politik dan rakyat negeri ini sebagai cara terbaik untuk melakukan percepatan proses pembangungan dinegeri ini. Berbagai aturan dan perundang-undangan disusun untuk meksukseskan pelaksanaan otonomi daerah. Berbagai aturan tersebut disusun dengan harapan bahwa otonomi daerah bisa menjadi solusi terbaik dan bukan semata sebagai bentuk luapan kekecewaan daerah terhadap pusat yang kurang adil terhadap daerah.
Dengan otonomi daerah, pemerintah didaerah akan mengurus rumah tangganya sendiri. Daerah diberi kebebasan untuk mengambil kebijakan guna kemajuan daerah, dan terkadang terlihat memaksakan anggaran daerah. Hal ini karena pendapatan daerah yang didapat belum sesuai dengan pemasukan yang ada. Hal yang ironis tentu akan terjadi didaerah yang minim akan hasil bumi, hal tersebut akan membuat daerah tersebut kesulitan untuk menggenjot pendapatan daerahnya. Akan tetapi justru sebaliknya bagi daerah yang kaya akan hasil bumi, justru akan lebih diuntungkan. Untuk itu perlu adanya komunikasi aktif baik antar pemerintah daerah maupun pusat guna menanggulangi berbagai akibat dari otonomi daerah.
Otonomi daerah ini hendaknya kita jadikan sebagai cara efektif pembangunan daerah, bukan sebagai ajang perebutan kekuasaan. Wacana yang berkembang saat ini adalah tingginya semangat primordial daerah yang berlebihan, dalam artian elite yang ada didaerah cenderung membanggakan daerah masing-masing. Mereka lebih senang menonjolkan daerah masing-masing. Berbagai isu kesukuan, putera daerah dan yang berbau ras secara tidak langsung dimunculkan. Bebagai isu tersebut tentu tidak terlepas dari peran segelintir orang yang ingin mempertahankan kekuasaan. Semua itu pada akhirnya rakyat kecil juga yang akan menjadi korban.
Berbagai tuntutan pemekaran daerah saat ini cenderung hanya merupakan ulah para elit politik demi memperoleh kekuasaan, tanpa memikirkan dampak dan berbagai permasalah yang akan dihadapi. Hal terpenting saat ini adalah masalah pelayanan publik dan ketersediaan infrastruktur yang merata disetiap daerah, karena hal itu yang sebenarnya dibutuhkan rakyat. Bila hal tersebut sudah bisa dilaksanakan maka pemekaran daerah tidak perlu dilakukan, karena dengan dilakukannya pemekaran daerah tidak akan menutup kemungkinan timbulnya permasalahan beru didaerah, sepertinya masalah kepegawaian yang meliputi gaji pegawai dan anggaran pembangunan daerah. Bila semangat otonomi daerah hanya dimanfaatkan oleh para elite didaerah untuk kepentingan kekuasaan semata, maka yang akan menjadi korban kembali adalah rakyat yang hidup ditengah kemiskinan, bukan para elit politik dan kapitalis yang mengejar kekuasaan semata.
Sebagai warga negara Indonesia yang bijak, hendaknya kita menyikapi semangat otonomi daerah ini sebagai upaya pemerataaan pembangunan dan peningkatan pelayanan publik. Kita harus harus lebih arif dalam menyikapi isu-isu pemekaran daerah dari adanya peran kepentingan para elit daerah yang bermain didalamnya. Terutama kepada para generasi muda, hendaknya kita lebih bersikap kritis, bukan berarti harus mengkritik setiap kebijakan akan tetapi lebih kepada sikap peduli dan tidak mudah termanfaatkan dalam menanggapi berbagai isu tersebut. Sehingga tujuan bersama dari otonomi daerah dapat terlaksana dengan optimal.